1. Introduction

In today's world of international networks and electronic commerce, every computer system is a potential target. Rarely does a month go by without news of some major network or organization having its computers penetrated by unknown computer criminals. Although some computer "hackers" (see the sidebar below) have said that such intrusions are merely teenage pranks or fun and games, these intrusions have become more sinister in recent years: computers have been rendered inoperable; records have been surreptitiously altered; software has been replaced with secret "back doors" in place; proprietary information has been copied without authorization; and millions of passwords have been captured from unsuspecting users.

Even if nothing is removed or altered, system administrators must often spend hours or days reloading and reconfiguring a compromised system to regain some level of confidence in the system's integrity. There is no way to know the motives of an intruder and the worst must be assumed. People who break into systems simply to "look around" do real damage, even if they do not read confidential mail and do not delete any files. If computer security was once the subject of fun and games, those days have long since passed.

Many different kinds of people break into computer systems. Some people - perhaps the most widely publicized - are the equivalent of reckless teenagers out on electronic joy rides. Like youths who "borrow" fast cars, their main goal isn't necessarily to do damage, but to have what they consider to be a good time. Others are far more dangerous: some people who compromise system security are sociopaths, joyriding around the networks bent on inflicting damage on unsuspecting computer systems. Others see themselves at "war" with rival hackers; woe to innocent users and systems who happen to get in the way of cyberspace "drive-by shootings!" Still others are out for valuable corporate information, which they hope to resell for profit. There are also elements of organized crime, spies and saboteurs motivated by both greed and politics, terrorists, and single-minded anarchists using computers and networks.

The most dangerous computer criminals are usually insiders (or former insiders), because they know many of the codes and security measures that are already in place. Consider the case of a former employee who is out for revenge. The employee probably knows which computers to attack, which files will cripple the company the most if deleted, what the defenses are, and where the backup tapes are stored.

Despite the risks, interest in computer networking and the Internet has never been greater. The number of computers attached to the Internet has approximately doubled every year for nearly a decade. By all indications, this growth is likely to continue for several years to come. With this increased interest in the Internet, there has been growing interest in UNIX as the operating system of choice for Internet gateways, high-end research machines, and advanced instructional platforms.

Years ago, UNIX was generally regarded as an operating system that was difficult to secure. This reputation was partially unfounded. Although part of UNIX 's poor reputation came from design flaws and bugs, a bigger cause for blame rested with the traditional use of UNIX and with the poor security consciousness of its users. For its first 15 years, UNIX was used primarily in academia, the computing research community, the telephone company, and the computer industry itself. In most of these environments, computer security was not a priority (until perhaps recently). Users in these environments often configured their systems with lax controls, and even developed philosophies that viewed strong security as something to avoid. Because they cater to this community (and hire from it), many UNIX vendors have developed a culture that has been slow to incorporate more practical security mechanisms into their products.[1]

[1] James Ellis at CERT suggests that another reason for UNIX 's poor security record has to do with the wide-spread availability of UNIX source code, which allows for detailed inspection by potential attackers for weaknesses. Buffer overflows or coding errors that would be reported on other systems as merely causing crashes are reported frequently on UNIX with detailed programs that break system security.

Perhaps the best known demonstration of UNIX vulnerability to date occurred in November 1988. That was when Robert T. Morris released his infamous "Internet worm" program, which spread to thousands of computers in a matter of hours. That event served as a major wake-up call for many UNIX users and vendors. Since then, users, academics, and computer manufacturers have usually worked together to try to improve the security of the UNIX operating system. Many of the results of those efforts are described in this book.

But despite the increasing awareness and the improvements in defenses, the typical UNIX system is still exposed to many dangers. The purpose of this book is to give readers a fundamental understanding of the principles of computer security and to show how they apply to the UNIX operating system. We hope to show you practical techniques and tools for making your system as secure as possible, especially if it is running some version of UNIX . Whether you are a user or administrator, we hope that you will find value in these pages.